Corruption Is A Form Of Dishonest Unethical Conduct

Corruption is a form of dishonest or unethical conduct by a person entrusted with a position of authority, often to acquire personal benefit.[1] Corruption may include many activities including bribery and embezzlement Corruption is an improbity or decay in the decision-making process in which a decision-maker consents to deviate or demands deviation from the criterion which should rule his or her decision-making, in exchange for a reward or for the promise or expectation of a reward, while these motives influencing his or her decision-making cannot be part of the justification of the decision. Bribery is the act of giving money, goods or other forms of recompense to a recipient in exchange for an alteration of their behaviour (to the†¦show more content†¦A third party, known as a White Glove, may be involved to act as a clean middleman. Specialist consultancies have been set up to help multinational companies and small and medium enterprises with a commitment to anti-corruption to trade more ethically and benefit from compliance with the law. Grease money is money that is paid to an official to facilitate the rapid processing of bureaucratic paperwork. Such a payment is known as a grease or facilitating payment, and the legality of such payments varies, depending on the laws that govern the activities of the official and the person or company offering the payment. Some people consider these payments to be a form of bribery, since they involve offering money to a public official with an expectation of a result, while others argue that they are only used to expedite a task that will be performed anyway, whether or not funds are offered. As such, it is simply a cost of doing business in some parts of the world. Extortion is a crime in which one person forces another person to do something against his will, generally to give up money or other property, by threat of violence, property damage, damage to the person’s reputation, or extreme financial hardship. Extortion involves the victim’s consent to the crime, but that consent is obtained illegally. Employment fraud is an attempt to defraud people who are seeking or performing employment by giving them a false hope of better employment, oftenShow MoreRelatedEthical And Moral Aspects Of Unethical Practices1641 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Unethical practices by organizations in the oil sector are frequently increasing as the pressure to compete and succeed compels them to ignore the ethical and moral aspects of their practices and decision-making. In order to maximize value for its shareholders and gain profitability, some oil companies willfully engage in unethical practices. Companies like Halliburton and Shell have made the headlines of many newspapers due to the unethical practices they engaged in. In May 2003Read MoreCase Study And Reaching The End1580 Words   |  7 Pagesthoughts were integrity, corruption, greed, standing up for your beliefs, corporation power, and reforming policy. Putting myself in this situation made me, explore my personal values and ask myself what I would do. I identified several facts that I will discuss with you throughout this case study: 1. Coleen Colombo was approached by a male wholesaler and attempted to bribe her. 2. Colombo emailed the regional vice president of operations to report the wholesalers conduct. 3. 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For the building and designing professions, the incalculable value of human life demands nothing less than the highest moral considerations from those who might risk it otherwise. Engineers, architects,

Pride And The Prejudice By Jane Austen - 1256 Words

As I started reading the book of Pride and the Prejudice, I have noticed that money is the desire that leaves no individual standing behind the person who is hypnotized by his or her wealth. First of all: External meaning, money in the wrong way could demolish the person or dignity and individuality. In general, if someone who just has become wealthy tends to believe that he or she is in power, thinking that they do not need any respect or sympathy towards the people who are not so wealthy. In the novel the social had a great impact among the characters. All of the English society in Jane Austen’s time and in her books everything was based upon the social classes. The Bennet’s are not so poor, yet they are not wealthy and they are about†¦show more content†¦But the title cuts their both ways. Austen, for the time being, poses a countless barriers between Elizabeth and Darcy, including Lady Catherine who was trying to control on her nephew’s marriage. Mr. Bingley’s arrogance, Mrs. Bennet’s insanity and Wickham’s being dishonest and accused of fraud. In each one of those cases, apprehensions about social connections, or the desire for having a better social connections does interfere with the love of Darcy and Elizabeth realization of a mutual and tender love seems to indicate that Austen perspective of love as something independent of these social forces, as something that can be conquered if only an individual is able to get away the wrapping effect of their social society. When Darcy meets Elizabeth, at first he is very resisted by his feeling whether he likes her or doesn’t like her based on her social wealth and Elizabeth family is not only the rather common but not wealthy as well. Moreover, they have no spectacular family connections either. Technically, Elizabeth is not allowed to be Darcy’s wife because Darcy is far above her on the social ranking. Another Example of the social class controlling character in the novel, is Mr. Collins who’s constant flattering all over Lady Catherine Debourgh At that time, owned a land or going to own a land and not having money was the single most important standard which committed the social status of each individual. Lady Catherine tries so hard to discourage

Free Crucibles Character of Abigail William Essay Example For Students

Free Crucibles: Character of Abigail William Essay s Crucible EssaysArthur Millers play, The Crucible, is about the persecution of persons falsely accused of being witches in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692. Many people die in the village after a series of lies and unjust practices. Abigail Williams, after having had an affair with a married man, begins this cycle of lies and accusations in an attempt to get her lover back. Her character includes both superiority and resentment throughout the play. Miller shows Abigails superiority as complex from the beginning. When all of the talk about witchcraft troubles her uncle, Abigail thinks she should be the authority. When she says, Uncle, the rumor of witchcraft is all about; I think youd best go down and deny it yourself, (9) she is showing her knowledge of social situations and giving her uncle, who is much older the she, advice. Abigail also thinks of herself as superior to the natives of Barbados. When her uncle discusses her work for the Proctors, she says that they want slaves, not such as I. Let them send to Barbados for any of them! (12). She is prejudiced against these people and her remarks reveal her snobbishness. Finally, Abigails snobbish character is apparent through her statements to John Proctor about his wife Elizabeth. She says, Oh, I marval how such a strong man can be with such a sickly wife (23). Abigail obviously thinks highly of herself: she is worthy of Proctors love, but Elizabeth is not. Abigail shows a character of superiority by her authoritative, prejudiced, and snobbish remarks. Abigail Williams also shows a tinge of resentment in the play. When Mary Warren confesses that the witchcraft is only pretend, Abigail is angry. She accuses Mary of being a witch, too. Abigails resentment of her friends betrayel causes her to seek revenge. After Abigails brief affair with John Proctor, she can not accept the fact that the relationship has ended. She says, I look for John Proctor that took me from my sleep and put knowledge in my heart! You loved me John Proctor, and whatever sin it is, you love me yet! (24). This desperation causes her to resent both Proctor and his wife. The resentment leads to revenge when she accuses Elizabeth Proctor of witchcraft. Her resentment deepens when Proctor tells the court about their affair. Abigails resentment is apparent through her words and her actions. Authur Millers development of Abigail Williams character in The Crucible greatly affects the plot of the play. Her snobbishness and superiority make many people believe her lies. Her resentment toward those that betray her influences many of her decisions. The authoritative, deceitful character of Abigail Williams is certainly unforgettable.

Learning Through Playful And Formal Methods Children And Young People Essay Essay Example

Learning Through Playful And Formal Methods Children And Young People Essay Essay Play has been characterized as an of import tool which fosters childrens larning accomplishments in several spheres such as linguistic communication and communicating, knowledge, and socialisation. This paper illustrates groundss that play enhances kids s problem-solving accomplishments and self-regulatory public presentation and metacognition by utilizing a job work outing undertaking ( comparing between finishing times of a jigsaw mystifier ) . During that task a self-regulatory theoretical account was used in order to enter the address. Thirty kids aged 40 to 55 months ( average age 3:9 ) involved in either playful or formal status. Results show that the cognitive public presentation which includes the job resolution, the self-regulation and metacognition is significantly improved through the playful status. Introduction We will write a custom essay sample on Learning Through Playful And Formal Methods Children And Young People Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Learning Through Playful And Formal Methods Children And Young People Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Learning Through Playful And Formal Methods Children And Young People Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Play is regarded as an of import activity which facilitates larning and development and enhances accomplishments in knowledge, socialisation, communicating, self-awareness, job resolution and sensory-motor map ( Stagnitti, 2004, p. 9 ) . Therefore, drama is seen from the early childhood plans as the basic attack of instruction for immature kids ( McInnes, Howard, Miles and Crowley, 2009 ) . However, many surveies have been conducted to give an recognized definition but the bulk of the efforts to specify drama cause restrictions to research which tend to exemplify the developmental potency of drama ( Thomas, Howard and Miles, 2006 ) . Owing to the fact that the nature of drama is non a predictable state of affairs, a hard phenomenon to interpret, it has provoked serious challenges to research workers. There are many research workers who province that the acquisition results are largely fostered by drama and others who possess a more conservative position about the relationship between drama and acquisition, peculiarly larning derives from many activities whereby drama has a more confined function ( Whitebread, Coltman, Jameson and Lander, 2009 ) . In order to exemplify a direct relation between drama and acquisition, research workers have focused on the impact of drama on job resolution activities. However, these surveies included many methodological failings because they did non gaining control and step the impact of the internal, affectional quality of drama which is gaiety ( McInnes et al. , 2009, p.32 ) . To understand gaiety Thomas et al. , ( 2009 ) have referred to practicians that have to larn kids s perceptual experiences of drama. The above impression is outstanding because this survey demonstrates two conditions in order to measure the impacts of drama on acquisition, the playful and the formal status. Furthermore, in line with Howard ( 2002 ) , who mentions that drama is adequately comprehendible from early old ages kids, this survey manipulated kids s perceptual experiences about drama in order to clear up the differences between playful and non playful patterns. Adults can be independent by pull offing their behaviour and emotions automatically without necessitating to believe, that is, they are able to self-regulate. During early childhood self-regulation occurs bit by bit and kids use egoistic address in order to work out a hard state of affairs. As kids grow up, their address switches to inner address and the soliloquies cut down. The self-regulatory linguistic communication kids use during early childhood is really of import for their development in assorted spheres. Interestingly, in playful activities kids use more self-regulatory linguistic communication than in non-playful state of affairss ( Howard and McInnes, 2013 ) . Indeed, in Whitebread et al. , ( 2009 ) survey were recorded many self-regulatory vocalizations by kids in playful state of affairss. The present survey provides grounds which suggests that drama contributes to larn by back uping the development of self-regulatory accomplishments and problem-solving accomplishments. Method Design This survey included a participants design and consisted of two experimental conditions. The independent variable was the class of status, that is, whether the kids practiced in playful or non-playful state of affairss. The dependent variables were the problem-solving mark betterment and the figure of self-regulatory vocalizations. A three-stage process was conducted, specifically the former-test, which included the clip taken for kids to finish the saber saw mystifier, the pattern five minute period which included the playful and non-playful conditions in which kids completed the activity. At this phase the self-regulatory vocalizations were recorded in each of the above conditions. Finally, the latter-test phase was elaborated two yearss after the drama or non play status and it measured the clip kids needed to finish the saber saw mystifier after the pattern in order to insulate acquisition and drama. The step of the efficaciousness was calculated by deducting the former-test clip from the latter-test times. Furthermore, the efficaciousness was calculated by mensurating the self-acting vocalizations. Participants The chance sample consisted of 30 kids ( 15 male childs and 15 misss ) from the same primary school category in South Wales who participated in the survey. The age of the kids was from 40 to 55 months ( average age 3:9 ) . Materials A digital voice recording equipment was used in order to enter the self-regulatory vocalizations during the pattern phase of the survey. At the same clip a camera was besides used to capture kids s motions and to verify the voice recording equipment s findings as good. For the job work outing activity saber saw mystifiers were chosen, peculiarly four mystifiers which did non picture gender based heroes and consisted of 24 big pieces. Each clip one mystifier was given to the kids in the former-test and the latter-test. Besides, the mystifiers did non picture existent life images but they portrayed abstract colored images. They were from the same fabrication company including the same hero in different state of affairss and each one was picturing a babys room rime. The specific mystifiers had neer been used in schools. Experimental conditions It was of importance to make contexts wherein kids would move playfully or non. Therefore, the cues that manipulated were emotional and environmental and included the voluntary temperament of a kid, the environment in which the pattern was held and the grownups presence. Hence, kids during the playful status were invited to take part and play on the floor for five proceedingss without the grownup s presence. On the other manus, kids during the non play status were told to take part at the tabular array for five proceedingss with the grownup s presence. Procedure Six schoolrooms were used for this survey. Three of them included a tabular array with two chairs and the others were empty. At the beginning of the undertaking each kid was shown the mystifier in the schoolrooms with the tabular array and the chairs and so was asked if he identified the rime. Subsequently on, the rime was narrated by the kid with the research worker s aid and the of import properties of the mystifier s image were described every bit good. Next, the saber saw mystifier was taken apart and the pieces were shuffled. The research worker recorded the clip it took the kid to finish the mystifier. After the completion the kids were allocated to either the playful or non-playful state of affairs and they were timed once more over the five minute pattern period. During the playful and non-playful state of affairs kids s self-regulatory vocalizations were recorded by the voice recording equipment and picture cameras which were placed in non-visible locations inside the school rooms. In peculiar, harmonizing to Livingston, ( 1997 ) this survey coded the self-regulatory vocalizations with a theoretical account which involved three chief facets of metacognition, the metacognitive cognition, the metacognitive ordinance and the emotional and motivational ordinance. Consequences Problem work outing betterment between the two groups For group A ( play status ) the average clip for finishing the mystifier between the former and the latter trial was 9.6 ( SD = 1.99 ) and for group B ( not-play status ) was 7.06 ( SD = 2.76 ) . The tonss from participants in the drama and non play pattern conditions were compared utilizing an unrelated t-test ( one tailed ) . Children in the playful pattern status performed better than kids in the non-playful pattern status ( p=0.0037 ) . The relationship between the age of kids and their tonss on the job work outing undertaking were investigated utilizing Pearsons correlativity. There was a positive relationship between the two steps ( r=0.90 ) , Figure 1. Older kids scored more extremely on the job work outing undertaking. Self-regulatory vocalizations The average figure of regulative vocalizations in playful state of affairs was 14.33 ( SD = 7.66 ) and during the non-playful status was 9.06 ( SD = 5.67 ) . From the 351 self-regulatory events 215 occurred on playful status ( 61.25 % ) and 136 during the non-playful status ( 38.74 % ) . Again, the tonss from participants in the drama and the formal pattern conditions were compared utilizing an unrelated t-test ( one tailed ) . Children in the playful pattern status performed better than kids in the non-playful state of affairs ( p=0.020 ) . Pearsons correlativity trial was used in order to look into the relationship between the age of kids and their tonss in the self-regulatory vocalizations. There was a negative relationship between the two steps ( r=-0.69 ) , Figure 2. Younger kids scored expressed more vocalizations. Discussion Findingss support the research inquiry that kids will be enhanced by playful patterns instead than formal conditions in the cognitive spheres of job resolution and self-regulatory and metacognition and that age plays an of import function in connexion with the above crucial spheres. As can be seen from the findings, there was a important difference between the two groups sing the job work outing undertaking. In other words, it can be inferred that drama positively influenced kids s cognitive public presentation. Furthermore, as kids grow up their cognitive accomplishments become more advanced, that is, they have an unconditioned sensitivity to get the hang more complex cognitive accomplishments when they are older. McInnes, Howard, Miles and Crowley ( 2009 ) stated in their survey that kids who practiced under playful instead than formal conditions illustrated significantly greater cognitive public presentation. Indeed, our survey supports the McInnes et al. , ( 2009 ) findings, because all kids performed better with jigsaw mystifiers during the playful state of affairss. Furthermore, kids expressed more self-regulatory vocalizations during the playful pattern status instead than the formal status, that is, harmonizing to these findings play provided more cognit ive challenges to kids. In line with the survey of Whitebread et al. , ( 2009 ) , kids express higher degrees of private address during drama and as reported by Vygotsky kids tend to speak to themselves whilst they are set abouting an activity, in making so, they learn to utilize linguistic communication to self-regulate their activities. However, the survey of Whitebread et Al. ( 2009 ) , has restrictions in comparing to our research, such us the deficiency of experimental control. For case, the above survey does non implement the experimental conditions of playful and non-playful conditions, hence at that place was non an expressed difference in kids s perceptual experiences whether a state of affairs was playful or non and whether grownups were right originating drama and arousing kids s self-regulatory vocalizations or non. Tellingly, the current survey dissociated whether there was a playful status or non by lucubrating emotional and environmental cues. As reported by Howard ( 2002 ) , kids possess the ability to separate drama or non play state of affairss based on their experience, hence in our survey kids were able to distinguish each status because they manipulated the cues given in both conditions. Consequences, showed that the age and the self-regulatory vocalizations are considered inextricably linked, due to the fact that the older kids showed a lower mark than the younger participants. In other words, it is obvious that as kids grow up their frequence of showing egoistic address reduces and becomes more interior address. Harmonizing to Gray and MacBlain ( 2012 ) , Piaget stated that kids from an early age project their ideas with the mediate tool of address, which he called egoist. However, as kids become more cognizant of societal outlooks egoistic address begins to melt and speech is internalized p. ( 46 ) . It is deserving adverting that the sample taken for this survey was kids from the same primary school category that is the bulk of kids were taught in a specific context, therefore the stimulation they received were limited. Furthermore, the school provided merely six schoolrooms during the procedure which caused defeat to the big figure of kids. The school should hold provided more schoolrooms for the survey needs. Last but non least future surveies should concentrate on the diverseness of the acquisition activities during the rating of the playful conditions in relation with larning results. Finally, by understanding the cues that kids use to show whether they want to move in a playful status or non, early old ages practicians will go more adept and will supply more acquisition chances associated with drama activities.

Chinas Physical Geography - A Diverse Landscape

Chinas Physical Geography - A Diverse Landscape Sitting on the Pacific Rim at 35 degrees North and 105 degrees East is the People’s Republic of China. Along with Japan and Korea, China is often considered part of Northeast Asia as it borders North Korea and shares a maritime border with Japan. But the country also shares land borders with 13 other nations in Central, South and Southeast Asia – including Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burma, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Vietnam. With 3.7 million square miles (9.6 square km) of terrain, China’s landscape is diverse and expansive. Hainan Province, China’s southernmost region is in the tropics, while Heilongjiang Province which borders Russia, can dip to below freezing. There are also the western desert and plateau regions of Xinjiang and Tibet, and to the north lies the vast grasslands of Inner Mongolia. Just about every physical landscape can be found in China. Mountains and Rivers Major mountain ranges in China include the Himalayas along the India and Nepal border, the Kunlun Mountains in the center-west region, the Tianshan Mountains in the northwest Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, the Qinling Mountains that separates north and south China, the Greater Hinggan Mountains in the northeast, the Tiahang Mountains in north-central China, and the Hengduan Mountains in the southeast where Tibet, Sichuan and Yunnan meet. The rivers in China include the 4,000-mile (6,300 km) Yangzi River, also known as the Changjiang or the Yangtze, that begins in Tibet and cuts trough the middle of the country, before emptying into the East China Sea near Shanghai. It is the third longest river in the world after the Amazon and the Nile. The 1,200-mile (1900 km) Huanghe or Yellow River begins in the western Qinghai Province and travels a meandering route through North China to the Bohai Sea in Shangdong Province. The Heilongjiang or Black Dragon River runs along the Northeast marking China’s border with Russia. Southern China has the Zhujiang or Pearl River whose tributaries make a delta emptying into the South China Sea near Hong Kong. A Difficult Land While China is the fourth largest country in the world, behind Russia, Canada, and the United States in terms of landmass, only about 15 percent of it is arable, as most of the country is made of mountains, hills, and highlands. Throughout history, this has proven a challenge to grow enough food to feed Chinas large population. Farmers have practiced intensive agriculture methods, some of which have led to a great erosion of its mountains. For centuries China has also struggled with earthquakes, droughts, floods, typhoons, tsunamis, and sandstorms. It is no surprise then that much of Chinese development has been shaped by the land. Because so much of western China is not as fertile as other regions, most of the population lives in the eastern third of the country. This has resulted in uneven development where eastern cities are heavily populated and more industrial and commercial while the western regions are less populated and have little industry. Located on the Pacific Rim, Chinas earthquakes have been severe. The 1976 Tangshan earthquake in northeast China is said to have killed more than 200,000 people. In May 2008, an earthquake in southwestern Sichuan province killed nearly 87,000 people and left millions homeless. While the nation is just a bit smaller than the United States, China uses only one time zone, China Standard Time, which is eight hours ahead of GMT. A Poem About Chinas Land: At Heron Lodge For centuries the diverse landscape of China has inspired artists and poets. Tang Dynasty poet Wang Zhihuan’s (688-742) poem â€Å"At Heron Lodge† romanticizes the land, and also shows an appreciation of perspective: Mountains cover the white sun And oceans drain the yellow river But you can widen your view three hundred miles By ascending a single flight of stairs

Thomas Malthus Biography

Thomas Malthus Biography Early Life and Education: Born February 13 or 14, 1766 - Died December 29, 1834 (see note at the end of the article), Thomas Robert Malthus was born on either February 13 or 14, 1766 (different sources list both as a possible date of birth) in Surrey County, England to Daniel and Henrietta Malthus. Thomas was the sixth of seven children and began his education by being home schooled. As a young scholar, Malthus excelled in his studies of literature and mathematics. He pursued a degree at Jesus College in Cambridge and received a Masters of Art degree in 1791 despite a speech impediment caused by a hare-lip and cleft palate. Personal Life: Thomas Malthus married his cousin Harriet in 1804 and they had two daughters and a son. He took a job as a professor at the East India Company College in England. Biography: In 1798, Malthus published his best known work, Essay on the Principle of Population. He was intrigued by the idea that all human populations throughout history had a section that were living in poverty. He hypothesized that populations would grow in areas with plenty of resources until those resources were strained to the point that some of the population would have to go without. Malthus went on to say that factors like famine, war, and disease in historical populations took care of the overpopulation crisis that would have taken over if left unchecked. Thomas Malthus not only pointed out these problems, he also came up with some solutions. Populations needed to stay within appropriate limits by either raising the death rate or lowering the birth rate. His original work emphasized what he called positive checks that raised the death rate, such as war and famine. Revised editions focused more on what he considered preventative checks, like birth control or celibacy and, more controversially, abortion and prostitution. His ideas were considered radical and many religious leaders stepped forward to denounce his works, even though Malthus himself was a clergyman in the Church of England. These detractors made attacks against Malthus for his ideas and spread lies about his personal life. This did not deter Malthus, however, as he made a total of six revisions to his Essay on the Principle of Population, further explaining his points and adding new evidence with each revision. Thomas Malthus blamed the declining living conditions on three factors. The first was the uncontrolled reproduction of offspring. He felt families were producing more children than they could care for with their allotted resources. Second, the production of those resources could not keep up with the expanding population. Malthus wrote extensively on his views that agriculture could not be expanded enough to feed the entire population of the world. The final factor was the irresponsibility of the lower classes. In fact, Malthus mostly blamed the poor for continuing to reproduce even though they could not afford to care for the children. His solution was to limit the lower classes to the number of offspring they were allowed to produce. Both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace read Essay on the Principle of Population and saw much of their own research in nature being mirrored in the human population. Malthus ideas of overpopulation and the death it caused was one of the main pieces that helped shaped the idea of Natural Selection. The survival of the fittest idea not only applied to populations in the natural world, it also seemed to apply to more civilized populations like humans. The lower classes were dying due to lack of resources available to them, much like the Theory of Evolution by Way of Natural Selection proposed. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace both praised Thomas Malthus and his work. They give Malthus a large portion of the credit for shaping their ideas and helping to hone the Theory of Evolution, and in particular, their ideas of Natural Selection. Note: Most sources agree Malthus died on December 29, 1834, but some claim his actual date of death was December 23, 1834. It is unclear which date of death is correct, just as his exact date of birth is also unclear.

Theoretical analysis & Critical design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Theoretical analysis & Critical design - Essay Example It will argue on the various natures of museums architectural features and whether the status as being an art or artefacts is influenced by taste and designs. Much emphasis will be placed on the museums external features than internal. This will enable the articles point of view to have depth. The museums that will be studied are those that have pre-purpose built features that represent the museums, not the ones that are used in the room somewhere. This will enable the article to bring taste and designs that aerated and the  objectives of this study to light. Museum is an architectural design of its own; with a rich past and typology of its own. The working together of the different aspect of museums architectural designs bring out the overall taste that describes the museum.1 The symbioses of all this activities shore-up the museums image, as a representation of art in that area. It may not come as a surprise as the two most essential modern works of museum theory, practice and cr iticism talk about an architectural image. This book titles Andre Malraux, the museum without walls and Douglas Crimps Un the museum, ruins refer to the opening of museum wrapper, the breaking down of the museums integrity.2 These two books summed the state of museum architecture in the modern era; they represent an attempt to try and break through the boundaries that try to separate the building from existence in terms class and ethic make up. The desire to breakdown the museum architectural fortifications were either literally or figuratively. It represents an indication to inhere the architectural designs of museums around the world, to render its boundaries nonexistent and hence, open the museum to the free flow of activities. The edges of the museums thus represent seclusion from the world’s reality and activities, the walls of the museums. Sign of the walls of museums is both are both it official expression and interface between the museum and the world. The internal pa rts of the museum are where the works of arts hang. The walls of museum act as a representation of the world. They act as protection between the physical world internal worlds.3 The design of the walls is an expression of how the museums walls are made to keep us out while keeps its rich heritage inside the walls. Museum is not just a place where items are displayed but also as a full sense of marvellous construction in the world. The museum is a representation old strong foundation. Museums that are a have survived the test of time are a description of what is the strength. Considering that most museums were made decades ago, and they still maintain the old structures, when museums address themselves in matters of taste they are faced with a dilemma, of what is historical fact affecting their taste right now. When describing the taste of a building whether people define it as being value free, or non partisan, or whether endorsing or contesting a particular pattern of preference th is shows that preference can be relative and absolute depending from your point of view. Taste becomes relative when it shows that a museums taste is just a symbolic description of what is valid to people at a certain time.4 When the structures of people’s language are considered then taste becomes absolute. People can describe a refurbished museum space to either be good, better or the best. When

Legalizing Marijuana, Pro Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Legalizing Marijuana, Pro - Essay Example Medical science has adopted a cautious approach while dealing with the issues related to legalization of marijuana. In other words, medical science neither completely opposes, nor it completely opposes the legalization of marijuana use in America. This is because of the fact that controlled use of marijuana may bring more benefits than harm. Patients who are suffering from chronic pain may be benefitted, if they are allowed to take marijuana in a controlled manner. This paper critically analyses all the dimensions of this controversial topic and argues in favor of legalizing of marijuana in America. Marijuana use is legal in fourteen American states at present. â€Å"The 14 states that have legalized marijuana for medicinal purposes are Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington†(Hall & Schiefelbein, p.197). It would be illogical to argue that these states legalized marijuana use without a deep study. In other words, these states might have conducted many studies before legalizing the usage of marijuana in their territories. â€Å"The cannabinoid drug THC has been approved by Food and Drug Administration for use in relieving nausea and vomiting and increasing appetite in people with cancer and AIDS. Testing of other marijuana extracts is still in the early stages† (Find support and treatment). ... A pure preparation of the major active component, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Marinol or dronabinol, is available for treating nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy and as an adjunct to weight loss in patients with wasting syndrome associated with AIDS. Although such approval currently applies only to orally administered THC, for practical purposes smoked marijuana should also be expected to be equally effective (Holister, p.5). The acceptance of marijuana among American people is growing day by day. â€Å"A recent Gallup poll found that a historic high of 46 per cent of Americans favor legalizing the drug† (Abramsky, p.18). Under such circumstances, prohibition of marijuana force people to collect marijuana from illegal sources. Collection of marijuana from illegal sources may cause huge taxes to the government. Clements et al (2010, p.20) pointed out that â€Å"taxing marijuana at the same rate as tobacco is estimated to yield additional revenue of about 24% of the pre-existing proceeds from taxation of tobacco and alcohol†. A recent study estimates that a state could collect tax revenues in the $650 million to $760 million range, if marijuana use is legalized. Moreover, law enforcement costs would decline by several hundred million dollars per year while legalizing marijuana (Abramsky, p.18). From the above findings, it is evident that legalizing of marijuana would help a government to increase tax revenue and reduce expenditure for the law enforcements. It should be noted that plenty of efforts and resources are necessary for the government to seize illegal marijuana collections and to enforce the law. Such expenditure can be avoided

North America Essay Example for Free

North America Essay North America is a very unique region because of the cultural, population, and environmental differences from other regions. North America’s climates and vegetation are diverse, mainly because of the regions size. The drier climates are found from west Texas to Alberta. The soils of this region are fertile. Prairie vegetation dominated by tall grasslands in the East. Western North American climates and vegetation are complicated by the regions mountain ranges. North America climates include everything from tropical Savanna, to Tundra environments. Most of the region’s best farmland and densest settlements lay in the mild or continental multitude climate zones. Metropolitan areas struggle with outdated clean water supply system. From all the consumption of water many places are threatened by water shortage. Scientist believes that all the wells will be dry bye two thousand and twenty from all the pumping. Prices are becoming higher because of the demand of water. Also, North America is being exposed to not enough clean water. Because of the water pollution that is being exposed everyday it causes citizens to get sick. North America’s greatest environmental disaster was in two thousand and ten when the deep Horizon rig had an explosion of leaking oil in the Gulf of Mexico. This spill damaged the sea and bird life therefore, new restrictions on deepwater oil was imposed shortly after so the disaster does not happen again. Also air pollution and Global Warming. The cities closer to the south such as Houston, Los Angeles, Canada, Toronto and Hamilton experience the worse air pollution. The main problems are automobiles because they release Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur, Nitrogen Oxide, and Hydrocarbons. All of these gasses are poisons to the human body because we humans only breathe Oxygen. Also since there are such poisons being released into the air, scientist has proved that the cancer rates are higher because of this pollution. The cancer rates were five hundred times higher than rural clean air localities. Air pollution causes a severe case of Global Warming. Changes in arctic temperature sea ice and sea level have increased because of Global Warming. The Climate change has become so bad that the climate refugees were forced to move in a variety of vulnerable environmental settings. Global warming has come from multiple directions, threatening their economic viability and cultural survival. The Population of North America varies from Canada to the United States. The Population for Canada is thirty four point one million and the United States population is three hundred and nine point six million. North America’s population also varies from the different cities, but overall the population today is three hundred and forty million people. Migration plays a big role in the role in the region’s population. About twelve percent of the U.S population moved to a different residence. The main reason why migration rates have fallen is because there have been fewer job opportunities, inability to sale real estate and increase in periods of more rapid economic growth. in the North Americans mostly preferred to live in the westward part of North America because there was more value to life on the west side. The fastest growing states are in the westward part also such as Arizona, Nevada, Alberta and British Columbia. African Americans were mostly stuck in the south after the Civil war, but after noticing the labor in agricultural. It started to decline, they saw a better growing opportunity in the North and west side. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Detroit, Chicago, Los Angeles and Oakland became the key destination for Southern Blacks. Today Seventy five percent of North American population is Urban. North America is expressed geographically in two different ways. First, similar people congregate near one another and derive meaning from the territories they occupy in common. Second, their culture, the everyday landscape, and language. Overall about twenty three percent of Canadians are French but more than eighty percent of the population of Quebec speaks French. Canadians strengthened the French language by requiring French instructions in the schools. Another different kind of culture language is the Hispanics who spoke Spanish. About forty five million Hispanics now live in the United States with more than half in California, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona combined. Latin foods and music add internal cultural variety to the region. New York City, Chicago and Miami serve as key points of Hispanic cultural influence. African Americans also have cultural homelands. Any of the south areas are considered home to the black African Americans. Such as Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. The kinds of music black folks engage in are mostly spiritual such as Gospel, and the Blues. Another homeland in the South is Acadian, a Cajun culture in southwestern Louisiana. This homeland was created when French settlers were expelled from eastern Canada and relocated to Louisiana. Millions of North Americans are affiliated with traditional religions. Orthodox Christians congregate in the Urban Northeast where many Greek, Russian and Serbian Orthodox communities were established. The telltale domes of Ukrainian Orthodox churches still dot the Canadian praires of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Also More than seven million Jews live in North America to this very day. The nation of Islam also has a strong Urban orientation, reflecting its appeal to many economically dispossessed African Americans. Many other Muslims, Buddhists, and Hindus also live int the United States. The United States also have a lot of Islam’s, Buddhist and Hindus While only about eight percent of people in the Unites States classify themselves as nonbelievers, a recent survey showed that thirty percent of the population claimed to have a largely secular lifestyle in which religion was rarely practiced. In a parallel fashion U.S culture has forever changed the lives of billions of people beyond the region. Although the economic and military power ot the United States was notable by the nineteen hundreds, It was not until after world war two that the countrys popular culture reshaped global human geographies in fundamental ways. The Marshal Plan and the Peace corps initiatives exemplified the growing presence of the United States on the worlds stage even as Europe, Colonialism wande. Rapid improvement and Global transportation and information technologies, much of them engineered in the United States, also brought the world more surely under the regions spell. Perhaps most critical was the marriage between growing Global demand for consumers, goods and the rise of the multinational corporation, which was Superbly structured to meet a cultivate those needs. These are the differences of North America from any other region.

A Comparison of Seamus Heaneys Mid-Term Break and Digging Essay

A Comparison of Seamus Heaney's Mid-Term Break and Digging I am comparing two poems by Seamus Heaney- `Mid-Term Break` and `Digging`. Both of the poems are written about his childhood and his family. The first poem I analysed was `Mid-Term Break`, where the simple and straight forward title `Break` caught my attention suggesting to me that this poem is going to be a positive experience, a break from work, a time to relax. The commencing stanza, the first line reads, ?I sat all morning in the college sick bay?, which has connotation of depression, illness and suffering suggested from the word `sick`. Also with the reference to college the reader gathers that the boy is in his late teens. Second line, ?Counting bells knelling classes to a close?, the word `knelling` in that line is associated with funerals and death so we get the feeling that something might be wrong and gather a sense of foreboding at what is to come. The final line, ?At two o?clock our neighbours drove me home?, is unusual, why are his neighbours driving him home and not his parents? The question why are his parents driving him home this increases the sense of foreboding. Also there is falling rhythm in this stanza. In the second stanza, the line begins, ?In the porch I met my father crying?, and this confirms to the reader that something is wrong, that something tragic has happened. The second line mentions that he takes `funerals` in his stride, so that says to me that he?s attended quite a lot of funerals even though he?s not that old. The final line, ?And Big Jim Evans saying it was a hard blow?, leads me to believe that Big Jim Evans is a close friend and also that he is quite large suggested by the adjective `Big` to descri... ...o poems `Mid-Term Break` and `Digging` are both good poems, which are both about families. `Mid-Term Break` is about when he leaves college and returns home to find out the news about his little brother. `Digging` is about his grandfather and how he?s getting old and finding work difficult, so both poems are about family, but quite different circumstances. The layout of the two poems is very different. `Mid-Term Break` being very straight forward, just having three lines to each stanza and `Digging` being completely opposite and following no strategic pattern. Overall I think that `Mid-Term Break` is a better poem, as I find it more serious and was personally more effective by this poem due to it being quite sad talking about his brother and that last line, ?A four foot box, a foot for every year?, which is a very emotional last line to finish a poem.

The Limits of Human Power.

Home > globalism > The Limits of Human Power The Limits of Human Power Monday 5 September 2011Ed HurstLeave a commentGo to comments Current plans to take over the world will fail, as usual. It’s offered as some key piece of evidence, something never before seen: NWO Plans EXPOSED by Insider in 1969. Actually, it’s one several such exposes I’ve seen over the years. For example, if you read John Taylor Gatto’s reports, you’ll realize some of these plans were formalized before the creation of the Federal Reserve.Keep reading back, and you’ll find plenty of documentation of such thinking all the way back into the 1700s. It would seem we are still chugging along the trajectory established back there by the Rothschild family (actually the name was Bauer). I’m not sure how much control they maintain over the whole enterprise, and I tend to think they are hardly the only ones involved. I’ve said often I’m convinced there is some division of interests up in that stratosphere of human rule. There seems to me more than one plan for global rule, though I’m pretty sure they all arose from the original thread started by that family.But if you trace the thinking espoused by Amschel Bauer’s writing and reports of his thoughts, you realize it goes back even farther. In other words, it’s been around since humans began recording anything at all. It doesn’t take much to discover a long list of worthy efforts which didn’t quite make it. We now read them as empires of history, though some come through in highly garbled and questionable accounts. For example, the most dubious chronology today is that of Ancient Egypt. While most people agree on a working assumption about it, those who really understand it admit there is much room for debate.But the one thing no one questions is the firm belief these people had in their destiny to rule all humanity. So the current run at this global rule seems to be somewhat fragmented. That is, the really big shots involved are having trouble keeping themselves on the same sheet of music. The linked article recounting a speech by Dr. Day is one thread of this story; I’ve seen material suggesting conflicting goals. There is a huge overlap, though. Certain elements are recognizable in both fiction and factual reports, because they represent borrowed wisdom from ancient attempts and failures.The whole point behind the Social Sciences, which includes History, is a broad attempt to understand human nature. What seems to be a point of limited debate between the plutocrats is the best way to take control. Even bigger is the disparity between the apparent reasons why they want it. In the theology to which I adhere, the Devil offers varying lures to anyone who can be suckered into wanting such power. His own objectives are incomprehensible, but certain patterns do come through. One of them is the lust for causing human misery in gene ral. In this, the plutocrats are making great progress right now.But another pattern is the assurance any measure of success in holding such great power will be short lived. It seems people can be harnessed to some grand vision with all manner of cynical brilliance about human foibles, and keep that wisdom alive across several generations, but when they are on the verge of gaining what they seem to seek, they somehow lose their hunger, lose their sharp sense of situational awareness. Something else kicks in and they do something stupid, and the Devil gets to laugh at his suckers. The whole thing comes apart and somebody else gets to start the cycle afresh.I’m pretty sure we haven’t hit the break point yet. Whomever is currently working to gain that universal power is still hungry, still pretty sharp, but the flies are buzzing around the cauldron. One or two have already fallen into the mix. It’s not going to turn out quite as they hope, but they’re too fa r into it to change directions much. The problem for them is, you can’t see this very clearly unless you disentangle yourself, divest yourself of any real interest in the whole thing. By no means is my intelligence in their league, but I simply don’t place much value on this level of existence.I’m hardly alone in this, but I do find myself pretty lonely, in that there aren’t that many of us. I’m not sure any of us can explain it, but the mere awareness itself somehow works to weaken this vast dark cloud of evil hovering over our heads. We aren’t blind, just not worried, and we refuse to contribute any fear energy to the process. A part of my weirdo theology indicates Satan’s power is affected by the level of fear he can create, and when people begin to lose that fear, even if only a few people, his efforts run out of gas.His only real power over us is our willingness to accept his story; when you become skeptical of it, the effect is somewhat more than mere counting of noses, but is exponential. That’s because the truth reflected by such skepticism is simply far more powerful. The simple truth in the minds of just a few that life on this plane is not the real story is enough to weaken the whole plan. In the midst of my holy cynicism and skepticism is a very high confidence God can and does show at least as much to others as He does me. I don’t award myself a very high rank, as it were, in this wisdom.I’ve brushed up against too many who were way ahead of me. But the very moral fabric which rules this universe responds to just a little truth in the mix, and my faith is richly rewarded. I’m watching, along with others, as this whole big plan or global rule starts coming apart just as it seems successful. Things are altogether ugly right now, with a broad, fat layer of misery resting on humanity as a whole. It’s a lot worse than it has to be; anyone can see that. But there is a si gnificant trend of suckers becoming unstuck from the big lies.People can be pretty smart when they want to be, and I’m watching a trend of folks waking up, if only partially. While their efforts will mostly be aimed at the wrong things, insofar as I can estimate, their awareness alone is making a powerful difference they probably can’t quite see. The divine principle here is God rewards a good desire by making things work out to our good in the end. This is my Father’s world, and He gets the final say in things. It won’t matter how much or how well we understand that, only that we live as best we can accordingly.This is just another round at the Tower of Babel, and it will end the same as before, in mass confusion. About these ads [pic][pic] [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] [pic]Share this: †¢ Print †¢ Email †¢ Facebook †¢ Digg †¢ LinkedIn †¢ StumbleUpon †¢ Reddit †¢ Twitter †¢ Google +1 †¢ Pinterest †¢ Tumblr †¢ Like this: Like Loading†¦ Categories: globalismTags: government, oppression, propaganda, religion [pic]Comments (0)Trackbacks (0)Leave a commentTrackback 1. No comments yet. 1. No trackbacks yet. Leave a Reply

A Study of Internet Addiction

Introduction: A passion adds value to one's life, an addiction takes away value. When the line between these two is crossed, the addict is often the last to know, due to their denial. A family and social history will reveal that the subject is being evaluated by close friends as actually suffering a great loss from their activity. While time spent online can be hugely productive, compulsive Internet use can interfere with daily life, work, and relationships. When you feel more comfortable with your online friends than your real ones, or you can’t stop yourself from playing games, gambling, or compulsively surfing even when it has negative consequences in your life then you may be using the Internet too much.Learn about the signs and symptoms of Internet addiction and how to balance your life online and off. Rapid development of computer technology in information society and particularly the invention and advancement of internet led to major changes in human life. Today, thanks to internet, it is possible to shop from virtual stores, to meet new people and make new friends via social networks, to easily access information and sources required for any subject or to be informed about any event that takes place anywhere in the world In addition to many positive effects, it is possible to discuss negative effects of computers, particularly of internet on individuals and society.The concept of internet addiction refers to the excessive use of internet which in turn causes various problems in individual, social and professional aspects. Internet addiction recently began to be analyzed as a psychological problem in association with various psychological problems in the academic world. Particularly educators, psychological counselors, psychologists and psychiatrists tended to carry out various researches on internet addiction.BODY Internet Addiction is a problem more common in society as Internet usage is increasing. The prevalence of Internet use worldwide is in creasing. Along with the benefits the Internet brings, problems of excessive Internet use is becoming apparent. As a result, along with drug and alcoholic addictions  nowadays, there is one more – Internet addiction, last but not least.The opinions on the methods for the solution vary, because the problem was not studied enough. One of the solutions is to attend support groups and get the professional help. Some individuals with strong will power might be able to get rid of the addiction by themselves, understanding that this is a problem, which has to be solved in order to have a normal life. Internet Addiction, otherwise known as computer addiction, online addiction, or internet addiction disorder (IAD), covers a variety of impulse-control problems, including:Addiction – compulsive use of Internet pornography, adult chat rooms, or adult fantasy role-play sites impacting negatively on real-life intimate relationships. Cyber Relationship Addiction – addiction to social networking, chat rooms, and messaging to the point where virtual, online friends become more important than real life relationships with family and friends.Net Compulsions – such as compulsive online gaming, gambling, stock trading, or compulsive use of online auction sites such as eBay, often resulting in financial and job-related problems. Information Overload – compulsive web surfing or database searching, leading to lower work productivity and less social interaction with family and friends. Computer Addiction – obsessive playing of off-line computer games, such as Solitaire or Minesweeper, or obsessive computer programming. The most common of these Internet addictions are cybersex, online gambling, and cyber-relationship addiction.METHOD For data gathering Study ModelThis is a descriptive study which used survey model. As it is known, survey models aim to indicate an existing situation. In this framework, we tried to determine internet addiction l evels of the individuals from all age groups.Study Group Population of the study consisted of the individuals living in Tinago Naga City province of Camarines Sur . Among random sampling methods, simple  random sampling method was used to determine the study group. Study group of the study consisted of a total of 596 individuals from different age groups living in Tinago Naga City center. Of the individuals in the study group, 284 (47.7%) were male, 312 (52.3%) were female.As for the distribution of the study group according to age groups; a total of 109 (18.3%) belonged to the age group of 19 and below; 98 (16.4%) belonged to the age group of 20-29 155 (26.0%) belonged to the age group of 30-39; 141 (23.7%) belonged to the age group of 40-49; and 93 (15.6) belonged to the age group of 50 and above. As for the distribution of the participants according to professional status, it was found that 191 (32.0%) were students; 221 (37.1%) worked in various professions; 39 (6.5%) were une mployed; 119 (20.0%) were housewives and 26 (4.4%) were retired.Data Analysis and InterpretationEach of the items in internet addiction scale was scaled as Never (1), Rarely (2) Sometimes (3), Generally (4) and Always (5). In parallel with the structure of the scale, for three sub-factors, averages of the response of the individuals to five-item type scale were calculated severally. High averages indicate high level of internet addiction while low averages indicate low addiction levels.The scores obtained from the responses of the individuals to five-item type scale did not show a standard character due to the differences in number of items in the sub-factors. For this reason, obtained raw scores were converted into standard scores (minimum 20maximum 100). The levels corresponding to the scores obtained from sub-scales can be summarized as follows: low internet addiction (20-51), mean internet addiction (52-67), high internet addiction (68-100). In this framework, internet addiction levels of the individuals were analyzed using arithmetic mean, standard deviationConclusion Surfing the internet can be an interest for people. But people need to use it properly. If not, it will become internet addiction. Internet addiction harmfulness is bigger than â€Å"TV addiction†. In deed internet addiction can be called â€Å"a mental illness†. Playing online games reasonably can make people  happy on free time. People also can increase the relationships between friends by rational use of network. Indisputably, network is a good way to find the information. Then, buying something online is very convenient. But doing anything need moderately. Otherwise it will be bad for people. There are some way to treat the online addiction. People can go outside to do some sport. Then people do not have energy to play computer.Also, people spend time to chat with friends at real life. It is good way to improve the friends relationship. Well-educated men with a thirst for knowledge. Current research indicates that Internet addicts can be of any race or gender. They will generally fall between the ages of 18 and 55, with an average of 15 years of education. In addition, it appears that many individuals become addicted for social rather than intellectual reasons. As technologies become increasingly accessible and diverse, age and education will no longer serve as useful guidelines for examining Internet addiction.Recommendation Internet Addiction is a problem more common in society as Internet usage is increasing. The prevalence of Internet use worldwide is increasing. Along with the benefits the Internet brings, problems of excessive Internet use is becoming apparent. As a result, along with drug and alcoholic addictions nowadays, there is one more – Internet addiction, last but not least. The opinions on the methods for the solution vary, because the problem was not studied enough.There are a number of steps you can take to get your Internet use under control. While you can initiate many of these yourself, it’s important you get some outside support as well. It can be all too easy to slip back into old patterns of usage, especially if you use the Internet heavily for work or other important activities. 1. Consider Taking a Technology HolidayTurn off the computer. Don’t use it on a daily basis. If you have to use it, use it only for necessary tasks. Force yourself to go off-line, and say ‘goodbye' temporarily (or possibly, permanently) to those people you are conducting a life with on the Internet. You can start this in a gradual way by creating a computer-free day, gradually extending this to include larger periods of time. Start by designating one day per week that you will not  turn on the computer or log onto the Internet.The reason for this is simple. You want to begin to train your nervous system to recognize that you can tolerate a day or an evening without something that you use on such a co nsistent basis. Until you prove to your body and mind that this can be done, you're going to continue in the repetitious cycle of your behavior. This acceptance and acknowledgement of the possibility of your having a problem allows your personal resources to be focused on the possibility of change.The important thing to remember is that change has to start somewhere. If you make no changes in your life, time will continue to pass. It will pass just as easily as you begin to make small changes in how you expend your time and energy. Craziness is simply the resistance to change or, rather, the insistence that something be different, in spite of making no efforts to change.2. Find Other Interests Preferably something that has nothing to do with computers or the Internet. Try a new activity or hobby. It would be even better if it could include your spouse, friend, or significant other. Force yourself to expand what you think you can do and try something new – it doesn’t ma tter what. Don’t give in the voice inside you that says you can’t do it.3. Exercise There is probably no one single recommendation that I can make that can have as many positive implications for your life. Exercise offers a variety of potential benefits. It’s fun. It can improve your health; increase your longevity; improve your overall functioning on a daily basis; improve your energy; increase your mood; and improve your self-esteem. There is considerable research on the efficacy of exercise in improving psychological well being along with improvement in treating addiction problems.There appears to be evidence in the addiction literature that many addictive behaviors produce changes in the neurotransmitter Dopamine (among others). This is what may produce the ‘kick’ or ‘high’ to behaviors such as gambling, compulsive eating, alcohol, or drugs. Dopamine is a responsible for changes in brain chemistry that â€Å"feels† good. It i s this â€Å"good feeling† that contributes to the repetition of the behavior over and over. althrough this  is not fully understood. Before starting up any exercise program it is important that you consult your physician or healthcare practitioner.4. Watch Less Television I am convinced that the use and abuse of television exacerbates many problems in our society. TV is a passive activity that takes your time and energy and gives you little in return. Although there are many positives about television, it has the negative probability to waste your time just as the Internet can. Further, it can take the time you could use to focus on your relationships or other activities in your life. It is also quite addictive. TV can also be a trigger to engage in other addictive patterns of behavior such as eating or sex. Try to reduce the number of hours you watch TV or better yet designate TV-free days.5. Talk to your friends and family about what is happening in your life Tell them t hat you’re worried about your Internet use. Shame, often associated with secrecy and isolation, further contributes the problem. Telling others offers the potential for support, decreases shame, stops social isolation, and promotes the healing process. All human problems exist in a social context and, therefore, so are the healing process. The hallmarks of any addictive behavior are often shame, secrecy, and isolation. Compulsive Internet use or addiction is potentially insidious because the Internet is a behavior that is typically practiced alone. The more you use it, the more isolated you become; the more isolated you become, the greater the likelihood that you will continue to engage in the self-defeating/addictive pattern due to guilt and shame.6. Develop New Relationships and Friendships Develop new relationships and friendships. Developing new friendships can expand the inner satisfaction you experience in your life. Although technology is stimulating, it does not provi de the personal/emotional connection that relationships do.The computer and the Internet may have the capacity to connect you to the world, and to make the world a smaller place; however, these activities are typically engaged in alone and can be socially isolating. The advances in technology create opportunity for new adventures,  but they cannot create the intimacy of human contact. It is my belief (and I like technology) that the greatest inner peace and satisfaction is derived from such relationships.7. Talk to Other About Your Overuse of the Internet Don’t keep it a secret. Secrecy breeds shame and shame adds to the isolation. If the isolation continues, depression can occur. The more depressed a person becomes the more likely he/she will resort to behaviors that will artificially elevate their mood. All addictive behaviors have the capacity to do this. Gambling, Internet drugs, alcohol, shopping, and sex can all have the effect of altering mood. The problem is that we tend to repeat those behaviors that make us feel good even if they have a cost or consequence. This creates the addictive paradox: doing something over and over that negatively impacts us.

Free Essays on Strategies Of Andrew Jacksons Presidency

To understand the rapid changes the United States experienced during Jackson’s presidency, one must consider the upbringing and beliefs of Andrew Jackson, the cultural shifts that took place among Americans, and the dramatic political revolution that took place during this era. Alexis de Tocqueville’s Democracy in America attempted to describe these changes to the world, as well as outline his predictions for future generations. In his composition, Tocqueville describes the overwhelming personal freedom that Americans enjoy, and how the political system as well as everyday life is shaped by this privilege. European ideals at the time were vastly different because of their aristocratic political system, where average citizens did not engage in politics at any level. When researching American local governments, Tocqueville was amazed by its structure as well as the enthusiasm and interest of its constituents, although obsession with equality led to the election of unde sirable candidates. One might accept that the statement above implies that Andrew Jackson should have been considered an undesirable candidate because of his tough upbringing and rebellious views on American liberty. However, as a child of poor immigrants who worked hard to obtain an education and proved himself as an American military hero reflects the American dream of today as well as in his era. Jackson’s image as a tough frontier hero set him apart for the learned and privileged gentlemen from Virginia and Massachusetts who had monopolized the presidency up to 1828. The profound economic growth after 1815 gave hope of prosperity to the common man and woman. Historians point to the booming population of the Northeast region as the major factor for change in transportation and western expansion, as small farmers fought to purchase new lands to earn greater profits. Jobs became plentiful, particularly in the manufacturing and railroad industries, as transpo... Free Essays on Strategies Of Andrew Jackson's Presidency Free Essays on Strategies Of Andrew Jackson's Presidency To understand the rapid changes the United States experienced during Jackson’s presidency, one must consider the upbringing and beliefs of Andrew Jackson, the cultural shifts that took place among Americans, and the dramatic political revolution that took place during this era. Alexis de Tocqueville’s Democracy in America attempted to describe these changes to the world, as well as outline his predictions for future generations. In his composition, Tocqueville describes the overwhelming personal freedom that Americans enjoy, and how the political system as well as everyday life is shaped by this privilege. European ideals at the time were vastly different because of their aristocratic political system, where average citizens did not engage in politics at any level. When researching American local governments, Tocqueville was amazed by its structure as well as the enthusiasm and interest of its constituents, although obsession with equality led to the election of unde sirable candidates. One might accept that the statement above implies that Andrew Jackson should have been considered an undesirable candidate because of his tough upbringing and rebellious views on American liberty. However, as a child of poor immigrants who worked hard to obtain an education and proved himself as an American military hero reflects the American dream of today as well as in his era. Jackson’s image as a tough frontier hero set him apart for the learned and privileged gentlemen from Virginia and Massachusetts who had monopolized the presidency up to 1828. The profound economic growth after 1815 gave hope of prosperity to the common man and woman. Historians point to the booming population of the Northeast region as the major factor for change in transportation and western expansion, as small farmers fought to purchase new lands to earn greater profits. Jobs became plentiful, particularly in the manufacturing and railroad industries, as transpo...

The Halloween Storm of the Century in 1991

The Halloween Storm of the Century in 1991 The Perfect Storm was a rare monster storm with an unnamed hurricane in the center of the tempest. The perfect storm was a nickname given  to this storm by Bob Case, a retired NOAA meteorologist. The storm began as an extratropical low on October 28, 1991 and became famous as author Sebastian Junger profiled the sinking of the swordfishing boat the ​Andrea Gail in the novel The Perfect Storm. The storm would eventually produce 100-foot ​rogue waves. October Weather Conditions In October, most of the United States moves towards the cold winter months as the country slowly cools down from the summer heat. Ocean water has a high heat capacity meaning the landmasses of North America cool at a more rapid rate than the ocean waters. The heat retained in the Atlantic will often create massive storms in the still-warm waters. Because air masses retain the characteristics of their source, the continental air masses from the cooler land will often meet the maritime air masses of the warmer ocean creating large storms known as a Noreaster. Predicting the Perfect Storm Forecasters had a rough time forecasting this Halloween storm. The storm happened when a high-pressure system, a low-pressure system, and the remnants from Hurricane Grace collided in a trilogy of terror. The resulting waves and high winds hit many parts of the Eastern United States causing the famed sinking of the Andrea Gail and the death of her six passengers. An interesting aspect of the huge system was its retrograde motion (east to west)- not away from the New England Coast, but toward it. Even while New Englanders were enjoying clear bright blue October weather, forecasters were warning of this immense storm. A Rare Weather Event According to Bob Case, the set of meteorological circumstances leading to the storm happen only every 50-100 years. Much like the Fujiwhara Effect, several weather events (detailed at the bottom of the page) did a strange meteorological dance around each other. Storm damage hit as far south as North Carolina, Florida, and the Northern coast of Puerto Rico. The storm caused millions of dollars in damages to beaches and homes, including the seaside Kennebunkport, Maine home of former President George Bush. An Unnamed Hurricane A remarkable event occurred when a hurricane formed inside the Halloween Noreaster. Wind speeds topped 80 mph inside of the intense Halloween storm, making the storm of hurricane strength on the Saffir-Simposon Scale. This particular hurricane was never named as most tropical cyclones are named according to a pre-set list of hurricane names. Instead, it would become known as the Unnamed Hurricane of 1991. The storm finally broke up over Nova Scotia, Canada, on November 2, 1991, and remains only the 8th hurricane never to be named since the naming practice began in the 1950s. Why Wasnt the Hurricane Named? There is a difference between the Halloween Storm of 1991 and the hurricane that formed inside the storm. At the time of the storm, emergency officials and the media were scrambling to get more information on the storm damages and well as any forecasts for future problems. It was decided that the hurricane would be short-lived and should remain unnamed so as not to confuse people. Storm Records Broken Many locations up and down the Atlantic coast saw tide, flood, and storm surge records broken. In Ocean City, Maryland, a record high tide of 7.8 feet occurred beating the old record of 7.5 feet recorded during a March 1962 storm. Damages in Massachusetts topped $100 million dollars. Other specific facts are available from the National Climatic Data Center Damage Summary for the Perfect Storm. Causes of the Storm of the Century Hurricane Grace - On October 27, 1991, Hurricane Grace formed off the coast of Florida. As Grace moved north on October 29, an extratropical cyclone formed over Canada. The counterclockwise motion of this low-pressure zone left a trailing cold front over much of the Northern Atlantic coast. The cold front would later catch up with the dying hurricane. Grace would later make the retrograde turn to the east in response.A Low-Pressure System - The low-pressure system formed over Canada and ran into Hurricane Grace off the coast of Nova Scotia, tearing the already downgraded hurricane apart. There was intense wind shear that acted as a hurricane-breaker, but the low-pressure system absorbed much of the energy of Hurricane Grace. The low-pressure system reached a peak intensity of 972 millibars of pressure and maximum sustained winds of 60 knots on October 30. The later movement of this low-pressure system over warmer 80 degree Gulf Stream waters served to intensify the storm in the same way tropical storms are intensified by warm ocean waters in the tropics. A High-Pressure System - A strong high-pressure center extended from the Gulf of Mexico northeastward along the Appalachians into Greenland. Strong winds were generated from the tight pressure gradient between a strong high high-pressure in eastern Canada (1043 mb) and the surface low.

Tiger airway case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Tiger airway case study - Essay Example Managers in Tiger use the low fares as a tool for attracting customers – also for keeping their existing customers. However, this practice has affected the firm’s overall competitive strategy. Also, other parts of the organizational activity, for instance the level of the firm’s profits but also the quality of the service delivery has been influenced by the decision of the firm’s manager to adopt a ‘low-fares’ strategy. The above problem would be made clear by referring primarily to the relevant literature. Then, reference should be made in the relationship between the firm’s low-fare strategy and the other elements of the organization, as described above. In accordance with Daly (2002) pricing is a valuable competitive strategy; it is noted that even a minor decrease in the price of a product/ service can help a firm ‘to get a contract’ (Daly 2002, 14). On the other hand, Smith (2011) states that pricing is not always a co mpetitive advantage; reference is made specifically to the case that a firm decreases its prices lower than its competitors. It is explained that in the above case pricing cannot be characterized as a competitive advantage since the firm has no profits, and in this way, no advantage exists for the firm by adopting the particular strategy (Smith 2011, 272). From another point of view, Porter (1998, 528) notes that through pricing, a firm can support its brand name. This view is particular important in the case of low fare airlines, like the firm in the case under discussion. Moreover, Marn, Baker and Zawada (2010, 81) state that pricing can be accepted as an effective competitive strategy but only under the terms that the laws on fair competition are not violated. Towards the same direction, Spulber (2007) supports that pricing can be a highly effective competitive strategy but only if it is combined with another strategy of similar scope; reference is made, for example to the combin ation by firms of pricing and distribution strategies for achieving a competitive advantage (Spulber 2007, 176). In the case under examination the effects of the firm’s low-fares strategy on its other strategies, would be described as follows: a) the firm’s competitive strategy have been affected by the low-fare practice at the following points: a1) it is difficult for the firm to develop other competitive strategies due to the reduction of its profits, a2) the firm’s brand name is enhanced – as a low – fare airline services provider, a3) because the quality of the firm’s services has been decreased, the actual benefits of the firm in regard to its competitiveness towards its rivals are minimized; b) because of the decrease of fares, the profits of the firm are decreased; this fact, inevitably affects the firm’s performance, since it is not possible for the firm to introduce plans for securing its position in the market; c) at the nex t level, the limitation of the firm’s profits has led to the decrease of the quality of its services – a fact highlighted in the case study (where reference is made to the lack of cleanliness of the cabin, the inappropriateness of the seats in terms of space left for passengers, the lack of facilities and stores in the waiting area of the airport – referring to the part of the airport where the passengers of the particular firm have to wait – and so on); from this point of view, the decrease of the firm’s fares has not led to the acquisition by the firm of a

The growth of car industry in a developing country - CHINA, USA and UK Essay

The growth of car industry in a developing country - CHINA, USA and UK - Essay Example Two phases are Literature review and an original research. In original research, a questionnaire would help in supporting a few findings. Main focus of this research would be on the Literature Review that would actually help in 80% of the recommendations and findings. In the last, crux of all the findings would be discussed that would also identify the fuel influence so that to know if the petroleum is a restricted reserve and gasoline will perhaps develop into a very luxurious liveliness foundation. The assessment indicates the practicability of the UK car development in the sequential conditions and at in present creation forecasts about its prospective expansion trends. The literature review touches the comprehensive car industrialized industry to identify the causes of the decline in the United Kingdom car industry as well as the strengths and weaknesses of British car manufacturers. The methods for investigate are based on the examination of secondary data appropriate to the cla ssification of the trends in the UK automobile industrialized. Conclusions are made about the car-industrialized outputs in the UK and the anticipated ricochet in the production levels. Automotive production is the mounting at an unparalleled momentum in Asian district in the globe, mainly due to a saturating automotive manufacturing of a western world. China, India, & ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) countries are the main dynamic markets for Asian automotive trade. Asian Automotive Industry Outlook (2007 2011) testimony provides a purpose scrutiny on Asian Automotive industry to investigate the prospective opportunities and challenges faced by the production (Wire, 2008). The automotive trade designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the worlds motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, counting cars and profitable vehicles were fashioned global (OICA, 2007). In 2007, a entirety of 71.9 million innovative automobiles were sold

Feminist Movement Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Feminist Movement - Research Paper Example This discussion will not only focus aspects of changing gender roles among females and males over the last 40 years. Before the 1960’s, a large percentage were only accepted in programs that were perceived as simple and involved social aspects of interaction for instance: Teachers, convent sisters, nurses and secretaries (tavaana.org). However, with the increased advocacy of equality in job opportunities for women in more technical programs in the 1960’s, a significant percentage of women began accessing enrolment in medical schools as well as colleges that provided, many women also began accessing employment in manufacturing industries; however at a lower wages compared to men (tavaana.org). In article published by the United States History, Arts & Archives, it is indicated that women were not given the right to vote before the introduction of the Women’s Suffrage movement. With the introduction of this movement, women were given the right to vote and occupy political offices (history.house.gov). These rights have since saw a shift in political power and decision making issues, leading to a scenario where women can lead the society and make pertinent decisions just like men. In a research undertaken by the Pew Research on Social and Demographic Trends, it was noted that the United States’ Labor Force accounts for 38% women and 62% men since that 1970’s. The research indicated that the number was attributed to the wide range of public consensus concerning the changing role of women and men in the society. Additionally, the study indicated that approximately 75% of the American populace agree that women should not go back to their traditional roles as home cares, but should work equally like men and contribute to their families’ income (www.pewsocialtrends.org). This is another aspect of a change in role between men and men. Over the last four decades, men and women have take almost equal roles in provision of responsibilities in

Grammatical constraints on code-switching

Grammatical constraints on code-switching Grammatical constraints on code-switching The behaviour of bilingual and multilingual speakers in a wide variety of speech communities and a broad range of social contexts has been the subject of research since the 1970s. Specific attention has been paid in the literature on bilingualism/multilingualism to the phenomenon of code-switching, one of the results of which has been the proposal of and subsequent debate surrounding a number of different grammatical approaches to it. This essay will attempt to examine and discuss some of the main grammatical approaches to code-switching, and go on to look at the arguments advanced to support (and undermine) these. As Poplack (1980) mentions, authors of the early literature when not focusing on the sociolinguistic and discourse elements relating to code-switching concluded that code-switching was a phenomenon that occurred at random. Subsequent research has shown that there are code-switching patterns and that switching is, in fact, subject to grammatical rules; the debate now is centred on what, exactly, those rules are. The various theories put forward by scholars in this field of research seek to elaborate universally-applicable rules that account for all instances of code-switching in all language pairs. As will be seen in this essay, and as is claimed by Gardner-Chloros and Edwards (2004) and Alvarez-Cà ¡ccamo (1998), none of these theories achieves its aim. It is worth bearing in mind that, broadly speaking, there are two main â€Å"types† of code-switching: intersentential and intrasentential. The latter is arguably of greater interest to researchers as â€Å"it is only there that the two grammars are in contact† (Myers-Scotton and Jake (1995)). There are several main grammatical approaches to code-switching which fall into a number of broad categories, each of which will be discussed in turn. Gardner-Chloros and Edwards (2004: 3-4) argue that any given grammatical approach to code-switching depends on the sense of the word â€Å"grammar†. They claim that at least five senses of the term can be identified and, of those five senses, grammatical approaches to code-switching have focused (explicitly or otherwise) on the following two: Formal grammar; and Chomskyan/Universalist grammar Poplacks study of code-switching amongst a sample of bilingual Puerto-Ricans in New York City (1980) is an empirical test of two simple constraints that, she claims, are universally applicable: the Equivalence Constraint and the Free Morpheme Constraint. The Equivalence Constraint dictates that intrasentential switches will only be made by any bilingual speaker (regardless of the speakers proficiency in his or her L2) â€Å"at points in discourse where juxtaposition of L1 and L2 elements does not violate a syntactic rule of either language, i.e. at points around which the surface structures of the two languages map onto each other†. So a bilingual speaker implicitly obeys the syntactic rules imposed by the respective grammars (which, in this model, are deemed to share rules that apply to the use of particular lexical items or language constituents) and will only make a switch from one code to the other at points where that switch will not violate the rules of either grammar. Indeed, the title of Poplacks paper is a case in point: (1) Sometimes I start a sentence in Spanish y termino en espanol(â€Å"and finish in Spanish†) Here, the switch is made at a point in the sentence where the Spanish subordinate clause â€Å"y termino en espanol† does not violate the grammatical rules of English (which are deemed to set the framework for the sentence): the verb â€Å"terminar† is correctly inflected (â€Å"termino† first person singular, present indicative) as the English verb â€Å"to finish† would be (i.e. â€Å"I finish†) had the clause been uttered in the latter language and indeed, the grammar of the subordinate clause does not violate any grammatical rules of Spanish, were the entire sentence to be uttered solely in Spanish. The Free Morpheme Constraint states that an intrasentential switch may be made by any bilingual speaker â€Å"provided [a] constituent is not a bound morpheme†. Thus a sentence such as: (2) And what a tertuliait was, Dios mio! (And what a gathering it was, my God!) is acceptable under the Free Morpheme constraint (note that idiomatic expressions such as Dios mio above are â€Å"considered to behave like bound morphemes in that they show a strong tendency to be uttered monolingually†), unlike a sentence such as: (3) *Estaba type-ando su ensayo (She was type-ing her essay) Subsequent discussion and research have shown that Poplacks Constraints theory is not universally applicable to all language pairs or all instances of code-switching. It would appear that the Constraints model sits perfectly with Poplacks own data set drawn from her sample Puerto-Rican speech community, and may be appropriate for language pairs which share particular grammatical, syntactic or lexical features, such that these facilitate switches that indeed do not violate any grammatical rules of either of the languages in contact. Nevertheless, Poplack has continued to defend and refine the model, arguing that instances of code-switching that violates either or both of the constraints are not code-switches at all, but rather what are termed by Poplack â€Å"nonce borrowings† (a term first coined by Weinreich (1953)). These, it is argued, are tantamount to single-word code-switches: words from the L2 are used in an L1-dominant utterance but have yet to become an established pa rt thereof. Poplack argues that the Free Morpheme constraint is â€Å"a consequence of the nonce borrowing hypothesis (Sankoff et al, 1990)†. However, further research has yet fully to substantiate the claim of universal applicability of the Constraints model to all language pairs and all instances of code-switching. Other constraints models have also been put forward, amongst others, by Pfaff (1979) in her study of Spanish-English code-switching and borrowing. She argues that there are four main types of constraints on constraints: functional, structural, semantic and discourse-related.   Further constraints have also been formulated by Woolford (1983) in her generative model of code-switching (again based on data from Spanish-English bilinguals). Such constraints models can be contrasted with the far more elaborate Matrix Language Frame model developed and advocated by Myers-Scotton and her collaborators (1993 and subsequently refined: 1995, 2000), in which sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics are combined within a grammatical approach to code-switching. The notion of a base or matrix language was not new when the MLF model was initially published by Myers-Scotton. Work by Klavans (1985), Joshi (1985) and others had already posited a â€Å"frame† or â€Å"matrix† into which elements of the other language could be embedded. The broad lines of the MLF are as follows. Myers-Scotton makes the case for code-switching to involve a base or matrix language (ML), into which pockets of embedded language are inserted. The ML, then, is the â€Å"unmarked† language choice that provides the grammatical structure for the utterance or discourse, with â€Å"islands† of EL inserted at grammatically acceptable points of that utterance. She distinguishes between different types of morphemes and the role they play in code-switching: the ML supplies the system morphemes (closed-class items) in the sentence, while the EL supplies a proportion of the content morphemes (open-class items). There is also a psycholinguistic dimension to the MLF model, in that the ML is deemed to be more â€Å"activated† than the EL; it therefore lends itself more readily to providing the frame for code-switching between a bilingual speakers two (or more) languages. In seeking to define â€Å"matrix language† Myers-Scotton argues that the decision made on the part of bilingual speakers to make intrasentential switches is â€Å"based on social, psychological and structural factors†. It is these factors that essentially form the basis of a definition of the ML. There are two structural criteria involved:  § The ML is the language that projects the morphosyntactic frame for the CP that shows intrasentential CS. This is operationalised by two principles: the morpheme order principle, which states that the â€Å"surface morpheme order (reflecting surface syntactic relations) will be that of the ML†; and the system morpheme principle, which states that â€Å"all system morphemes that have grammatical relations external to their head constituent (i.e. participate in the sentences thematic role grid) will come from the ML†.  § The ML generally supplies the greater number of morphemes in intrasentential code-switching. The sociolinguistic aspects of the MLF model underpin the psycholinguistic ones: as stated above, the ML is the â€Å"unmarked† or expected language choice for the exchange between code-switching speakers. It is pointed out, however, that this is not always the case, for instance when the speakers do not share the same first language. It is also argued that the ML can change over the course of an exchange, in relation to situational changes for example. The distinction between content and system morphemes is central to the MLF model, in that they help to identify the ML and EL. Under the MLF model, content morphemes come mainly from the EL, with system morphemes coming principally from the ML to form the frame in which code-switching can occur. There are, however, difficulties in using morphemes to identify the ML, particularly when a speakers bilingualism is quite balanced. The quantitative criterion states that the majority of the morphemes in a code-switched utterance will come from the ML. However, this raises the issue of sample size which Myers-Scotton herself concedes is difficult to determine and comes up against instances of code-switching by balanced bilingual speakers who use both of their languages more or less equally; the number of morphemes from each language will, therefore, be more or less equal, thus undermining the applicability of the quantitative criterion posited in the MLF model in identifying the ML. . Like the Constraints model, subsequent research and commentary have led to the MLF model being refined into its current form, the 4-M Model. In this theory, further distinctions are drawn between categories of system morpheme. Attempts are also made to resolve issues in the original MLF model, such as double morphology. An interesting aspect of the MLF model is that it does not adopt the â€Å"sentence† as an appropriate unit for the grammatical analysis of code-switching. Myers-Scotton instead uses the CP (complement phrase) as an analytical unit, which she defines as a syntactic structure expressing the predicate-argument structure of a clause, plus the additional syntactic structures needed to encode discourse-relevant structure and the logical form of that clause. Because CP explicitly assumes that the unit of structure includes COMP (complementizer) position, it is a more precise term than either clause or sentence. For all of its innovation and complexity which sets it in stark contrast with the simplicity of the Constraints model discussed above the MLF model does not account for all instances of code-switching in all language pairs, fitting only with certain language pairs, and particularly with Myers-Scottons data set drawn from East African languages and dialects; as well as â€Å"cases of very asymmetric bilingualism† where the speakers proficiency in one or other of the languages in contact is weaker. So neither the Constraints model nor the MFL model gives a complete grammatical description of code-switching; instead, they each describe a particular form or class of code-switching into which particular language pairs or forms of bilingualism fit. A more complete view is therefore required. Muysken (2000) proposes a typology of code-mixing (a term that he favours over â€Å"code-switching†, which he reserves for referring to instances of rapid interchange between languages in the same discourse) that attempts to encompass both of the models discussed above, with an additional component that he terms â€Å"congruent lexicalization†. He argues that there are three main types of CS: Alternation: this is a form of code-switching in which bilingual speakers alternate between their two (or more) languages. An example of alternational code-mixing is Poplacks Constraints model. Insertion: in this form of CS, speakers insert chunks of switched constituents from the L2 into discourse framed in L1. Muysken argues that the MLF model is an illustration of insertional code-mixing. Congruent lexicalization: this is code-mixing between language pairs that share close morphological and phonological ties. An example of one such language pair (and the corresponding code-switching) is provided by Clynes study of Dutch-English code-switching in Australia (1987). Muysken argues that different language pairs will fit into one or other of those types. So, rather than proposing a â€Å"one size fits all† grammatical approach to code-switching/code-mixing, he acknowledges that code-mixing/code-switching between different languages pairs will display different characteristics, rather than claiming that all instances of code-mixing/code-switching will fit into a single immutable model or theory. It is interesting to note that Muysken is also a proponent of the Chomskyan Government model of code-switching. In a paper co-authored with Di Sciullo and Singh (1986), it is argued that the government constraint, whereby there can be no switch in codes between a governor constituent and its corresponding governed item, will serve to predict which switches will and will not be acceptable, regardless of the languages in contact in a bilingual persons lexicon. The model, however, does not account for or predict all instances of code-switching; indeed, bilingual speakers will code-switch at any point in any given utterance, Government or no. Even when the scope of the model is restricted to lexical government by non-function words (Muysken 1990), it remains an overstatement. It must also be borne in mind that this model will change as many times as Chomskys theory of Universal Grammar goes through its various transformations; in its current incarnation of the Minimalist Program, the not ion of Government has been cast aside altogether owing to definitional difficulties Another take on the generativist approach to code-switching is the â€Å"null theory† of code-switching. A number have been put forward (Mahootian (1993), Chan (1999), MacSwan (1999, 2000), Woolford (1983)). The basic premise of the â€Å"null theory† approach whether it is couched in terms of Tree Adjoining Grammar (Joshi 1985) or the Minimalist Program/Principles and Parameters is that code-switching can be described in terms of grammatical principles relevant to monolingual grammars, without postulating additional devices or constraints that are specific to code-switching itself. This is an attractive argument, but far from compelling. Generativist models are highly abstract, to the point where they are too far removed from the realities of bilingual speech. The underlying premise of Chomskys notion of the monolingual â€Å"ideal speaker† is not helpful here, as it leads to generalisations about bilingual speakers that are simply not accurate, as they are not a reflection of how bilinguals combine their languages in speech. Additionally, the â€Å"ungrammatical† nature of speech weakens any grammatical model of code-switching (see below). There are a number of reasons why none of these models (perhaps with the exception of Muyskens proposed typology of code-mixing) can account for all instances of CS. 1. Variability: As Gardner-Chloros and Edwards rightly point out, this variability is found between communities, within a single community, right down to the speech of individuals and even within the speech of a single individual within the same conversation (2004: 4). This may be the end result of and, at the very least, related to the idiolectal competence of individual speakers. 2. Nature of bilingual speech: Bilingual speakers are known to employ all kinds of devices and â€Å"tricks† to avoid being constricted by the dictates of grammatical rules. Speakers use pauses, interruptions and other means to neutralize any grammatical awkwardness resulting from switching at a particular point in the sentence.These devices serve a functional purpose in allowing speakers to make full use of both of their languages, and legitimising combinations from languages that are typologically different (e.g. word order). 3. Abstract nature of the notion of â€Å"grammar† and â€Å"sentence†: These are abstractions used by linguists to conceptualise language behaviour, in this instance amongst bilingual speakers. The issue here is whether such abstractions are relevant to the analysis of CS as seen in bilingual speech. The concept of the â€Å"sentence† may not be appropriate to the analysis of code-switching in any event: speakers rarely utter fully-rounded, grammatical sentences in everyday discourse and code-switch at will with seemingly little concern for the grammaticality of the (intersentential or intrasentential) switches that they make so effortlessly. Furthermore, from a grammatical analysis perspective, Gardner-Chloros and Edwards argue that even if the sentence were to be accepted as the â€Å"upper limit of grammar† and a meaningful unit in the context of code-switching, this would mean that grammatical approaches would only seek to explain intrasentential swit ches whilst omitting intersentential switches and conversational â€Å"moves† (2004: 5). The fundamental question at issue is whether or not a grammatical approach to code-switching is even appropriate. Given the variability of code-switching and the nature of speech in general and bilingual speech more specifically it seems particularly difficult to formulate any kind of universally applicable principle or constraint that accurately predicts how, where and when a bilingual speaker will switch codes, let alone whether that switch will â€Å"grammatical†. Variability lays at the very heart of code-switching; it is a reflection of a human ability to handle and manipulate language in any way that serves the speakers purpose in any given situation and with any given interlocutor(s). Another salient point that emerges is whether code-switching is even an observable fact. Gardner-Chloros (1995) argues that CS is an â€Å"analyst construct†, a product of linguists conceptualisations of language contact and language mixing and, as such, not separable from borrowing, interference or pidginisation (1995: 86), be it in ideological or practical terms. She also argues that the abstract concept currently accepted in bilingualism research is â€Å"fuzzy† and should in fact be used as a much broader term for a range of interlingual phenomena in which strict alternation between two discrete systems is the exception rather than the rule (1995: 68). If that is indeed the case, is it possible to begin to formulate a â€Å"grammar of code-switching† when there is still uncertainty as to what code-switching actually is? The arguments put forward by Alvarez-Cà ¡ccamo (1998) are also related to the points raised by Gardner-Chloros. In tracing the development of code-switching as a field of bilingualism research and of applied linguistics as a whole, he distinguishes between linguistic varieties and communicative codes, arguing that code-switching pertains to the former category and, as such, suggests that â€Å"code-switching† is perhaps a misnomer. He proposes that the concept of CS in its current form be both narrowed to exclude unrelated phenomena that have come under the banner of â€Å"code-switching†, and broadened to include those elements that have been excluded (including aspects of monolingual speech). It is difficult to see how an all-encompassing approach to code-switching can be put forward until the phenomenon of code-switching has been properly identified (and presumably labelled: â€Å"In order to argue convincingly for or against the existence of â€Å"code-switching constraints† and â€Å"code-switching grammars† () research should first convincingly prove that (a) speakers who code-switch possess two (or more) identifiable systems or languages, each with its identifiable grammatical rules and lexicon; and (b) â€Å"code-switched† speech results from the predictable interaction between lexical elements and grammatical rules from these languages.† (Alvarez-Cà ¡ccamo (1998: 36)) However, the issue here again lays in the conceptualisation of bilingual speech. Abstractions used by linguists in examining language phenomena such as code-switching remove the â€Å"human† element reflected in discourse strategies employed by bilingual speakers (discussed above; see below). A further aspect of code-switching, while not strictly grammatical, is discussed by Bentahila and Davies (1995):   the variables related to language contact situations, and how those change depending on developments in the contact situations. In a study of different generations of Moroccan Arabic-French bilinguals, they examine the relationship between patterns of code-switching and patterns of language contact and the influence of extraneous factors on those patterns. They point out that code-switching is affected by the nature of the contact between a particular pair of languages: duration of contact, for instance, and the impact of governmental language planning policies. They found that while all the bilingual speakers in their sample speech community used the same languages, their use of those same languages depended on their proficiency in both, which in turn depended on their age and the effects of governmental language planning and nationalist policies pursued in the post-c olonial continuum. It could be argued that evolving patterns of code-switching contribute to the variability of code-switching practices amongst bilingual speakers and, therefore, constitute another (indirect) reason why grammatical approaches to code-switching so often fall short. In summary, then, a number of grammatical models of intrasentential code-switching, with each claiming to predict where in the sentence a bilingual person will switch languages and that such switches will be made in such a way as not to violate any of the grammatical rules of either of the languages in contact. It is contended that, rather than achieving that aim, each model is specific to the data sets on which they are based, and can only really apply to similar language pairs. They therefore only describe an aspect of a phenomenon that is far more complex than the models would suggest. Furthermore, the applicability of the various models also depends on the â€Å"kind† of bilingual concerned and their proficiency in their respective language pairs: the Constraints model appears to be more relevant to more balanced bilinguals, for instance, while the MLF model seems to be more appropriate to more asymmetric bilinguals. It must be remembered that the models are not in stasis but rather continually refined and amended in relation to developments in their particular theoretical backdrop: the Government model of code-switching, for instance, is based on a theory of Universal Grammar that is itself evolving over time. Muyskens typology of bilingual speech (2000), which draws on the leading models of code-switching/code-mixing and seeks to account for all instances of code-switching by taking into account the various aspects involved therein, appears to be the most rounded of the grammatical approaches to the phenomenon, in that it encompasses the disparate aspects that have formed the focus of individual models. There is also the issue of whether code-switching is a phenomenon in its own right and, if not, what linguistic phenomena the concept of code-switching can be deemed to cover. Has the concept become an umbrella term used to describe a number of different linguistic devices employed by bilingual speakers? Or are these elements that are indistinguisha ble from a wider phenomenon? To conclude, it would appear that research into and grammatical approaches to code-switching have lost sight of the fact that code-switching is an abstraction used by linguists to conceptualise an aspect of the behaviour of bilingual speakers. After all, â€Å"languages do not do things; people do things, languages are abstractions from what people do† . Such a conceptualisation has led to researchers attempting to fit bilingual speech behaviour to a particular model rather than the other way around, discounting aspects such as variability, bilingual discourse strategies and the fact that code-switching is a creative, innovative process designed, it would appear, almost to avoid grammatical constraints altogether. Abstract grammatical models cannot reflect the realities of language contact and use. Not only that, but code-switching is also a gauge of language change and shift; this being the case, it is plausible that a grammatical shift would ensue, thus undermining a given m odel. Factors such as those mentioned by Bentahila and Davies (1995) must also have some kind of impact on grammatical models when these are based on a language contact situation which is shifting and evolving. A step back towards the realities of bilingual communication and speech acts, combined with an acceptance of the variability that they necessarily entail as reflected in the typology proposed by Muysken (2000) would constitute a more appropriate starting point for any grammatical approach to code-switching that sets out to be all things to all bilingual speakers.